CONTRIBUTING DISCIPLINES TO ORGANISATINAL BEHAVIOUR

Psychology:

Psychology has perhaps the most influence on the field of organizational behavior because it is a science of behavior. Almost all aspects of behavior are studied by psychologist. Psychology deals with studying human behavior that seeks to measure, explain and sometimes change the behavior of humans and other animals. Psychologists primarily interested to predict the behavior of individuals to great extent by observing the dynamics of personal factors, environmental and situational factors. Those who have contributed and continue to add to the knowledge of OB are learning theorists, personality theorists, counseling psychologists and most important, industrial and organizational psychologist.

Some of the numerous areas of interest within the disciplines of psychology are:

• General Psychology
• Experimental Psychology
• Clinical Psychology
• Consumer Psychology
• Personality and Social Psychology
• Industrial Psychology
• Counseling Psychology
• Educational Psychology
• Consulting Psychology

Understanding Psychological principles and its models help significantly in gaining the knowledge of determinants of individual behavior such as learning process, motivation techniques, personality determinants and personality development, perceptual process and its implications, training process, leadership effectiveness, job satisfaction, individual decision making, performance appraisal , attitude measurement, employee selection, job design and work stress.

Learning is important in understanding organizational behavior because of the concepts and generalizations that have developed from it. Managers are more interested to seek solutions to the following key aspects:

• What are the causes of Behavior?
• What are the goals and purposes of particular Behavior?
• What are the roles of genetic and environmental factors on the formation of particular Behavior?
• What are the common values, attitudes and characteristics that are binding people together, though individuals differ from one another in personal values, personalities and attitudes?
• To what extent individuals identification or belongingness with others will help shape his or her behavior?
• To what extent social learning is associated to motivational level of individual?

All these generalizations are associated with learning, which occurs through out a person’s life. One of the most important attributes of psychology is the emphasis on the scientific study of behavior. Psychologists attempt to understand behavior on the basis of rational, demonstrable cause-effect relationships. Although learning and motivation are the main focus of psychology, the immediate applications to the field of organizational behavior are widespread. Basic knowledge of human behavior is important in work design, leadership, organizational design, communication, decision making, performance appraisal systems and reward programs. These issues are falling within the domain of organizational behavior.

Sociology:

The major focus of sociologists is on studying the social systems in which individuals fill their roles. The focus of attention is centered on group dynamics. They have made their greatest contribution to OB through their study of group behavior in organization, particularly formal and complex organizations. Sociological concepts, theories, models and techniques help significantly to understand better the group dynamics, organizational culture, formal organization theory and structure, organizational technology, bureaucracy, communications, power, conflict and inter-group behavior. Psychologists are primarily interested to focus their attention on the individual behavior.

Key concepts of Sociology:

Most sociologists today identify the discipline by using one of the three statements:

• Sociology deals with human interaction and this interaction is the key influencing factor among people in social settings.
• Sociology is a study of plural behavior. Two or more interacting persons constitute a plurality pattern of behavior.
• Sociology is the systematic study of social systems.

A social system is an operational social unit that is structured to serve a purpose. It consists of two or more persons of different status with different roles playing a part in a pattern that is sustained by a physical and cultural base. When analysising organizing as social system, the following elements exist:

• People or actors
• Acts or Behavior
• Ends or Goals
• Norms, rules, or regulation controlling conduct or behavior
• Beliefs held by people as actors
• Status and status relationships
• Authority or power to influence other actors
• Role expectations, role performances and role relationships.

There fore, organizations are viewed by sociologies as consists of a variety of people with different roles, status and degree of authority. The organization attempts to achieve certain generalized and specific objectives. To attain some of the abstract ends such as the development of company loyalty, the organization’s leaders appeal to the shared cultural base.

The discipline of sociology has been associated with the following characteristics of a science.

i) It is empirical: it is based on observation and reasoning, not on supernatural revelation, and its results are not speculative

ii) It is theoretical; I attempts to summaries complex observations in abstract, logically related propositions that purport to explain causal relationships in the subject matter.

iii) It is cumulative; theories build upon one another, new theories correcting, extending and refining the older ones.

iv) It is no ethical; the scientists do not ask whether particular social actions are good or bad; they seek merely to explain them.

Social Psychology

It has been defined as the scientific investigation of how the thoughts, feelings and behavior of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined or implied presents of others. What makes social psychology social is that it deals with how people are affected by other people who are actually physically present or who are imagined to be present or even whose presence is implied.

In general sociology focuses on how groups, organizations, social categories and societies are organized, how they function, how they change. The unit of analysis is the group as a whole rather than the individuals who compose the group. Social Psychology deals with many of the same phenomenal but seeks to explain whole individual human interaction and human cognition influences culture and is influenced by culture. The unit of analysis is the individual within the group. In reality, some forms of sociology are closely related to social psychology.

Social Psychologists study an enormous range of topics including conformity, persuasion, power, influence, obedience, prejudice, discrimination, stereotyping, sexism and racism, small groups, social categories, inter-group behavior, crowd behavior, social conflict, social change, decision making etc. Among them the most important topics relevant to organizational behavior field are behavioral change, attitude change, communication, group process and group decision making. Social psychologists making significant contributions in measuring, understanding and changing attitudes, communication patterns they ways in which groups can satisfy individual needs and group decision making process.

Anthropology

The main aim of anthropology is to acquire a better understanding of the relationship between the human being and the environment. Adaptations to surroundings constitute culture. The manner in which people view their environment is a part of culture. Culture includes those ideas shared by groups of individuals and languages by which these ideas are communicated. In essence, culture is a system of learned behavior. Their work on culture and environment has helped us to understand differences in fundamental values, attitudes and behavior among people in different countries and within different organizations. Much of our current understandings of organisatoinal culture, organization environments and differences between national cultures are the results of the work of anthropologists or those using their methodologies.

The world is the laboratory of anthropologists, and human beings must be studied in the natural habitant. Understanding the importance of studying man in natural settings over time enables one to grasp the range of anthropology. Familiarity within same of the cultural differences of employees can lead to a greater managerial objectivity and depth in the interpretation of behavior and performance. Anthropologists contribute to study the following aspects in organizational settings – comparative values, comparative attitudes, cross-cultural analysis between or among the employees.

Political Sciences:

Contributions of political scientist are significant to the understanding of behavior in organizations. Political scientists study the behavior of individuals and groups within a political environment. They contribute to understand the dynamics of power centers, structuring of conflict and conflict resolutions tactics, allocation of power and how people manipulate power for individual self interest. In a business field, organizations wanted to attain supremacy in their own field and indulge in politicking activities to gain maximum advantages by following certain tacks like Machiavellianism, coalition formation, malpractices etc. The knowledge of political science can be utilized to the study the behavior of employees, executives at micro as well as macro level.

Economics

Economics contributes organizational behavior to great extent in designing the organizational structure. Transaction cost economics influence the organization and its structure. Transaction costs economics implies costs components to make an exchange on the market. This transaction cost economics examines the extent to which the organization structure and size of an organisation varies in response to attempts to avoid market failures through minimising production and transaction costs within the constraints of human and environmental factors. Costs of transactions include both costs of market transactions and internal co-ordination. A transaction occurs when a good or service is transferred across a ‘technologically separable barrier” Transaction costs arise for three main reasons: They are as follows.

i) Uncertainty/Complexity: Due to incomplete information, limited skills, time, the transaction is highly complex and uncertain. Signing a meaningful market contract minimizes such uncertainty which increases transactions costs. Both sides have to spend time and money on agreeing ex ante conditions of the contract. Suitable organisation structural relationships will facilitate to meet this objective.

ii) Opportunism (seeking self-interest or exploiting situation-cheating others):

If there are large number of sellers, the chances of being exploited is relatively diminished – market mechanism controls transaction costs. If small number of players exist in the market, opportunism becomes more difficult to control due to dependency on seller. Creating legal contract or developing liaison with buyers can help minimise this problem – a cost is paid to minimise exploitations. When faced with opportunism, there are three possible organisational design: they are as follows: a) Market co-ordination b ) Hierarchies-Organisation co-ordination and c) Hybrid –Network Structure

iii) Asset Specificity (Creating special assets to provide a special good or service):

Developing specific human or physical assets to provide special good or service which cannot be redeployed for other purposes. The higher the degree of asset specificity, the higher the potential transaction costs because of post contractual opportunism. Designing suitable organisational structure – Inter-firm networks or hierarchies will help to control this type of transaction cost

Economic Pressures determine the suitable structure either through markets, hybrid network structures or hierarchy to organise transactions effectively. Failure to organize in the appropriate way will lead to the firm being deselected by the market. As environment is so dynamic, organization must respond to change its structure. Shifts from large firm hierarchies to networks or to market relations are in terms of changing conditions of the economising function.

Conclusion:

The behavioral sciences have had a significant impact on the field of organizational behavior. They have provided a reference that encourages the use of the scientific method. Some of the more generally agreed upon influences of behavioral science on organizational behavior are:

·         the systematic use of theories and theory building to explain behavior

·         An empirical base to study individuals, group, and organization.

·         The increased use of rigorous research methods

·         Less use of arm chair speculation in reaching managerial decisions

·         Efforts to communicate theories, research and ideas to practicing managers as well as members of the field.